The history of development of manufacture processor (cpu) completely corresponds to history of development of the production technology of other electronic components and schemes.
The first stage the period with 40 on the end of 50th years, creation processor (cpu) with use of electromechanical relays, ferrite cores (memory devices) and vacuum lamps was mentioned. They were established in special sockets on the modules collected in racks. A considerable quantity of such racks connected by conductors, in the sum represented processor (cpu). Low reliability, low speed and the big thermal emission was distinctive feature.
Introduction of transistors became the second stage, from the middle 50 to the middle 60. Transistors were mounted already on close to modern by the form to the payments established in racks. As well as earlier, on the average processor (cpu) consisted of several such racks. Speed has increased, reliability has raised, power consumption has decreased.
Use of microcircuits became the third stage which has come in the mid-sixties. Microcircuits of low degree of the integration, containing simple transistor and резисторные assemblages were originally used, then in process of technology development the microcircuits realizing separate elements of digital circuitry (at first elementary keys and logic elements, then more difficult elements began to be used — elementary registers, counters, adders), later have appeared the microcircuits containing functional blocks processor (cpu) — the microprogram device, the arithmetic-logic device, registers, devices of work with tires of the data and commands.
Creation, thanks to break in technology of creation ENCORE and СБИС (the big and superbig integrated schemes, accordingly), micro processor (cpu) — microcircuits on which crystal all basic elements and blocks processor (cpu) have physically been located became the fourth stage, in the early seventies. Firm Intel in 1971 has created first-ever 4 digit micro processor (cpu) 4004, intended for use in microcalculators. Gradually practically all processors (cpu) began to be issued in a format микро processors (cpu). An exception long time remained only limitededition processors (cpu), it is hardware optimized for the decision of special problems (for example supercomputers or processors (cpu) for the decision of some military problems), or processors (cpu) to which special demands on reliability, speed or protection against electromagnetic impulses and ionizing radiation were made. Gradually, with reduction in price and distribution of modern technologies, these processors (cpu) also start to be made in a format micro processor (cpu). Now words micro processor (cpu) and processor (cpu) practically became synonyms but then it was not so because usual (big) and micro processor (cpu) COMPUTERS peacefully coexisted still at least 10-15 years, and only in the early eighties микро processors (cpu) have forced out the senior colleagues. Nevertheless, central processor (cpu) devices of some supercomputers even represent today the difficult complexes constructed on the basis of microcircuits of the big and superbig degree of integration. It is necessary to tell that transition to micro processor (cpu) m has allowed to create then personal computers which have got now almost into each house.
The first popular micro processor (cpu) was 4-digit Intel 4004, presented on November, 15th, 1971 corporation Intel. It contained 2300 transistors, worked on clock frequency 92,6 кГц [1] and cost 300 dollars
Further it was replaced 8-digit Intel 8080 and 16-digit 8086, by the laid the foundation architecture of all modern desktop processors (cpu). Because of prevalence of 8-digit modules of memory has been let out cheap 8088, simplified version 8086, with the 8-digit tire of memory. Then its updating 80186 has proceeded.
In processor (cpu) е 80286 there was a protected mode with 24-bit addressing, allowing to use to 16 Mb of memory.
Processor (cpu) Intel 80386 has appeared in 1985 and has introduced the improved protected mode, 32-bit addressing, allowed to use to 4 Gb of operative memory and support of the mechanism of virtual memory. This ruler processors (cpu) is constructed on register computing model.
In parallel develop микро processors (cpu), taken for a basis push-down computing model.
In modern computers processors (cpu) are executed in the form of the compact module (the sizes about 5×5×0,3 sm), inserted into a ZIF-socket. The most part modern processors (cpu) is realized in the form of one semi-conductor crystal containing millions, and since recent time even billions transistors.
Creation history processor (cpu)
Today the world without the computer is inconceivable
The phenomenon. And after all very few people reflects on the device
These "beings". And precisely nobody knows, how much
The given devices over the last 50 years became clever. For many people Artificial intelligence and the computer,
Which costs on your table, is one and too. But as
People educated, we know that to reason of the person,
Or even dogs any, even the cleverest, the car still
Far. And after all difference all the same is: in a brain of the live
Beings there is a parallel processing of video, a sound,
Taste, sensations, and etc., not to mention the such
Elementary thing, as thought process, which
Accompanies many from a birth and to the death.
Today any break in the information
Technologies meets as something especially outstanding.
People want to create to themselves the younger brother, which, if
Doesn't think yet then thinks faster them.
It is clear that by any gigahertzes you will not measure a unique person
Human brain, but anybody also doesn't measure, and we
Let's lead short excursion in the near past and,
Certainly, in not clear present of development of a body
processor (cpu).
Digression to history микро processors (cpu)
The very first elektronno-computing
Cars (COMPUTER) have appeared in 60th years ХХ centuries.
At first these cars were bulky, and they were
Are accessible only to the research centers with
The huge budget. Computers, participating in
Modern superfast scientific and technical
Progress, become ever less. In
The present is the cars having the sizes
The diplomat and carrying out any conceivable and not
Conceivable operations.
But we will address to historical inquiries. With 1978
Year one has been started in a batch production of
The first processors (cpu) from a series i86. Development of this
To a series also has led to occurrence accessible and small on
In the size of personal computers, so popular in
Our time.
We will stop on IBM-compatible
Computers. They are named so by name of firms
The manufacturer.
We will stop on these computers only therefore,
That, for example, computers Apple Computers it is possible
To name faster specialized, than widely
The extended.
В1978 To year firm Intel together with firm IBM
Develops and lets out in a series the first of
processors (cpu) families i86. If to look narrowly,
It is possible to see that with firm Intel to a number processors (cpu)
Other firms which make join also
The devices on the proved technology.Important that almost from the very beginning these firms
Pour out in the enterprises competing among themselves,
As leads to sharp rates of development, reductions of prices
And accordingly it is possible to consider this fact Positive for the consumer.
AMD is gemmated from Intel the younger brother,
But ways this firms disperse on all parameters.
Obvious opposition of two is now observed
Strong competitors who have technologies, and
As strong and weaknesses. AMD by right
Occupies the share in the market processors (cpu), even
In spite of the fact that its approach to development of technologies
More likely evolutionary, than revolutionary. Therefore not
It is necessary to consider that AMD simply clones Intel Pentium —
It not so.
Today many experts say that firm
Ciryx has handed over positions almost all positions, though on -
To the former lets out modern and inexpensive
processors (cpu), but already also doesn't aspire to occupy, at least
Nominally, leadership. The given firm always distinguished
That she independently developed processors (cpu),
But not all models were so successful, as at competitors.
It is impossible to assert that company Intel with Pentium on
Pentium 4 has made something superrevolutionary in
Areas of the workings out. However it is considered that this
The firm goes on a step ahead of the younger brother.
This error has been dispelled in 2000 – 2001
Years, when because of the wrong policy in marketing
Intel couldn't advance new processor (cpu) Pentium
4 because of the big cost not so much the chip,
How many periphery, in particular memories RDIMM.
Company AMD uses this situation and
Is published with processor (cpu) Athlon, and hardly погодя —
Athlon XP, which under characteristics even
Surpassed Pentium 4, and at the price was much more low.
In a press about processors (cpu) AMD have started talking not
Simply as about cheap alternative, but also as about
More favourable investment of means, at least, for
House users.
But Intel doesn't surrender and, despite a failure in
Marketing, we understand that it processor (cpu) was where
It is more technologically perfect. That we also see in
Situations in the market, AMD again gets into the role, to which
All have got used in a role of cheap alternative more
Expensive, but also faster and modern Pentium.
For users of personal computers we
Let's tell that acquisition of the car with processor (cpu)
Pentium is a risky investment of means. A fashion on
The computer market change so promptly that for
It it is almost impossible to follow: 75, 90, 100, 120, 133,
150, 166, 200 MHz... Whether this Will end sometime
Mad race? The decision can become MMX (Multimedia
eXtension — "multimedia - expansion") — technology,
Which can transform "simple" Pentium the personal computer in
Powerful multimedia system.
As it is known, on a crystal processor (cpu) Pentium
It is integrated mathematical соprocessor (cpu). This
The functional block which is responsible
"A crunching of numbers", but... And the practice, similar
Possibilities are required nevertheless seldom enough, them
Use basically systems SAPR and some
The programs solving purely computing problems. At
The majority of users this block simply
Stands idle. Creating technology MMX, firm Intel aspired
To solve two problems: first, to involve
Not used possibilities, and secondly to increase
Productivity of the CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT at performance of the typical
Multimedia programs. With that end in view in system of commands
processor (cpu) the additional have been added
Instructions (all them 57) and additional types of given,
And registers of the block of calculations from a floating comma
Carry out functions of working registers.
Additional machine commands
Are intended for such operations, as fast
Transformation of Fure (the function used in
Video codecs) which are frequently carried out
Special hardware.
"Processors (cpu), using technology MMX,
Are compatible to the majority of applied programs,
After all for "old" ON registers MMX look
In the same way, as usual registers
Mathematical соprocessor (cpu). However
There are also exceptions. For example, applied
The program can address simultaneously only
To one block — or calculations with swimming
Comma, or MMX. Otherwise result, as
Rule, it is not defined, and quite often occurs
Emergency end of the applied program.
Technology MMX is general
Direction of development of architecture processors (cpu)
Intel for 1997 First of all its advantages
End users can estimate —
Multimedia computers become much more powerful
And is cheaper. The official announcement of the new
Technologies it is planned on the beginning of October 1996
Year, however processor (cpu) in which it is realized
Technology MMX, already exists. It is known under
Code name P55C, and Intel, probably, meaningly
Delays the moment of its release, giving
To manufacturers of the personal computer possibility to familiarize with
Advantages of this CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT.
Among the companies which assume
To let out Multimedia-pk with processor (cpu) P55C,
Is as recognized leaders of the computer market
— Compaq, Dell, Acer, and young, but dynamical
Firms, for example, Compulink Research (CLR).
It is expected that the majority popular
Applied programs will use
Technology MMX, and by the end of their 1997
The quantity more than will double, and users
Again will face a choice problem. Today
There are three high-efficiency processor (cpu)
— Pentium with clock frequency of 200 MHz, Pentium
Pro with the same clock frequency and 200- MHz
Variant P55C. Results of tests on
Productivity which were given by firm
CLR, allow to draw a conclusion that the personal computer with
processor (cpu) P55C occupy the intermediate
Position in this number. At performance of the typical
Problems results of this CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT don't differ almost
From indicators of "usual" models Pentium from the such
Clock frequency. However at execution
Fragments of a code which has been optimized for
P55C (On video - audio- and graphic tests), it not
Concedes processor (cpu) at Pentium Pro, depending on
Type of a problem the prize in speed reaches
From 70 % to 400 %. Predictably, Multimedia-pk with
processor (cpu) P55C will be cheaper similar on
To functionality of the computer.
In article materials are used,
Given by firm CLR ".
Ridiculously to read this article, knowing that for ММХ
Has proceeded "expanded ММХ", and then SSE and,
At last, now — SSE2. In the further review we
Let's see that there is more to come.
Except technological decisions on increase
Quantities of instructions work and on improvement was conducted
Manufacture process. After all transistors for
Information processings became more and more and
It is more, and they, eventually, simply weren't located on
To decisions. Now processors (cpu) Intel
Are issued on technical process with norm in 0,13 microns, and on
One square millimeter of a crystal settles down
Millions transistors. Intel plans to pass on 0,09
Micron in 2003.
What is the technical process 0,13 microns
I will try to explain, without pressing in technology.
Usually resulted figure means length of the channel
The KMOP-TRANSISTOR. Speed of switching of the cascade on
КМОП Vakh of transistors and capacity depends on a steepness
Loadings. The steepness is defined by a current through the transistor
And the relation (width of the channel — W) / (it is long the channel — L)
. The basic capacity in КМОП technologies — capacity
Shutters of transistors — it is proportional to the area
Shutter = ~W * L. It is obvious that than less length
The channel, the shutter area there is less (and
Dependence square-law), at the same relation W/L.
Hence, it is possible to reduce a current, and not to lose
Speed. And it is possible to reduce W/L for the account
Reduction of width of the channel and to reduce the size
Transistors — to increase quantity of elements on
Crystal (though in modern technologies width
The channel, as a rule, it is optimum from the point of view
Minimization of the size of a topological element).
New processor (cpu) from Intel
In the end of May corporation Intel has informed that in
Current of the next month manufacturers
Computers intend to present the first servers and
Workstations on base processors (cpu) Itanium.
It is expected that this year about 25 companies will let out
More such 35 models, and hundreds suppliers
The equipment and the software will offer
The products working with given systems. IDC
Predicts that this year it will be sold 26 thousand
Systems on the basis of Itanium, and by 2004 their number will increase
To 540 thousand Differently, message Intel meant,
That industrial release new processor (cpu) has begun
Corporations. Systems on a basis processors (cpu) Itanium will be
To be supported by four OS, including a platform
Microsoft Windows (the 64-digit version for workers
Stations — 64-bit Edition and the 64-digit version for
Servers — 64-bit Windows Advanced Server Limited
Edition 2002); HP-UX 11i v1.5 companies Hewlett-Packard,
AIX-5L Corporations IBM and Linux. 64-digit versions
To last plan to deliver companies Caldera
International, Red Hat, SuSE Linux and Turbolinux. Already
It is announced more than 500 appendices, which
It is supposed портировать for architecture Itanium.
It is literally in day of announcement Itanium about release
Systems on its basis have declared some the large
The companies, in which number Bull, Compaq, Dell, Fujitsu -
Siemens, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, NEC, SGI and Unisys. In
Particulars, IBM announced a workstation
IntelliStation Z Pro and server X380, Dell —
fourprocessor (cpu) ный server PowerEdge 7150 and
Workstation Precision Workstation 730, Bull — 4 and
16-processor (cpu) models of servers Escala IL
It would be desirable to note the systems presented Hewlett -
Packard: двухprocessor (cpu) ную workstation HP
Workstation i2000 and 4 and 16-processor (cpu) servers HP
Server rx4610 and HP Server rx9610. Now
HP-UX — Unique 64-digit system UNIX,
Providing shipping at level of the binary
Code of program applications of customers at transition
With RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) on architecture
Itanium. HP-UX is optimized to provide
High performance level,
Scalability and reliability. Besides, now
Hewlett-Packard — The unique manufacturer
Computers on platform RISC, whose technics it is possible
To translate on platform Itanium without the repeated
Compilations of appendices and ON. And has put here in
The following.
Way processors (cpu) Itanium to the consumer in Intel
Usually divide into six stages: a support gain
Branches, release of prototypes for partners, release
Prototypes for developers, release of pilot systems,
Platforms and, at last, mass introduction of decisions.
It is known that for testing and working out
To manufacturers of computers and users was
It is put more than 6500 systems. The first stage of this way
It is dated November, 1997. However it would be desirable
To remind that history Itanium has begun considerably
Earlier
In June 1994г. Companies Intel and Hewlett-Packard
Have signed the agreement on joint working out new
64-digit architecture focused on
Application in servers and workstations.
Advantages микро processors (cpu) with большей
Word length are obvious. They allow to address
large memory size, give the chance to operate
With the big range of numbers, raise efficiency
Parallel and matrix calculations and etc. we Will notice,
That else in 1983 in Hewlett-Packard it was accepted
The decision to begin the project of association of the various
processors (cpu) and OS, used in three computer
Rulers (HP1000, HP3000 and HP9000).
Results of it Decisions today well-known: this family
processors (cpu) PA-RISC (Precision Architecture Reduced
Instruction Set Computing) and OS UP-UX, which
Are in common applied in the high-efficiency
Workstations and Unix-servers (N - V - L - and an A-class).
The first computer on the basis of PA-RISC has been presented
In 1985 of Research and working out are conducted in
Laboratories микро processors (cpu) which enters in
Division System VLSI Technology Operation. In 1989
In search of new, inheriting PA-RISC decisions
Нewlett-Packard Has started architecture working out
EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing),
Subsequently renamed in WideWorld Architecture,
And then in SuperParallel Processor Architecture (SP-PA). But
In 1993 when this 64-digit architecture was
It is almost ready, project heads have understood that
The company of one not to take out huge expenses on
Working out and manufacturing new processor (cpu). Then in
Нewlett-Рackard For the first time have considered possibility
To involve in creation of the high-efficiency
processor (cpu) other company.
By 1994 corporation Intel having a wide experience
In area микро processors (cpu), tested
Certain difficulties. Proceeding two years
Working out of 64-digit architecture Р7 has encountered
On serious difficulties. Subsequently Intel has refused
From Р7 in favor of EPIC though for the sake of justice costs
To notice that some features Р7 are realized in
Itanium.
To offer HP to work together in Intel
Have concerned with the big enthusiasm. After all opened
Real possibility to catch scaled OS
Corporate level HP-UX which it will be possible
To realize on a new platform. In the joint
Contract Нewlett-Рackard it was necessary to go on the large
Concessions. The corporation has agreed that Intel will be
To make all constructive decisions on the new
processor (cpu) at, even what mention architecture
EPIC, developed by engineers Нewlett-Рackard.
By the way, new processor (cpu) has received name Merced
Honor of the river in California
Two years later when it was found out that capacities
To bypass architecture PA-RISC, in Нewlett-Рackard have solved
Independently to create new processor (cpu) on the same
The base, as Merced
Internal functional blocks. When about it
The project have learned in Intel, negotiations have begun about
Distribution of partnership, which originally
It was limited to creation only processor (cpu) Merced
On 64-digit architecture as a whole, so that
To include in the agreement and a new crystal. So Merced
The time considered in quality
The potential grave-digger of RISC-architecture,
Has turned to an intermediate step. As the signed agreement had no rigid term, both
The companies have without effort expanded the cooperation already
Over new 64-digit processor (cpu) McKinley (so
The highest mountain in the North America ) is called.
By the way, it was originally supposed that systems
The fairy tale affects.
Importance of success Intel and НР in business of creation of the powerful
64-digit platform for the computer industry
It is impossible to overestimate. The rates here are at
Everyone. Almost all firms-manufacturers of computers
New systems, and all developers of OS UNIX create
Plan to transfer the versions on a new platform.
Analysts are assured that Itanium will force the companies,
Letting out servers and workstations RISC/Unix,
To reconsider the lineup. However on very
Wide choice of computers Itanium to count not
It is necessary. Processor (cpu) it was developed too long,
Besides from the middle of 1999 working out continually
Encountered obstacles. As a result,
The majority of the companies has concentrated on creation
Computers on the basis of McKinley.
It is no wonder that release Merced
Was late if to consider that two giants of the industry
Pursued an overall aim, but used absolutely
Different tactical approaches. Some experts then
Asserted that the companies have appeared partners
Necessarily: they were reduced by external forces of the market,
Developed products and financial difficulties,
Which they have decided to overcome together. Intel considers Itanium in quality
The ancestor of new family processors (cpu),
Which will develop the next 25 years. For
The first model with code name Merced
Will follow McKinley, Madison , Deerfield and other new
Versions. According to official figures, six models
Similar crystals already are at a stage
Workings out. Experimental batches processor (cpu) McKinley
It is planned to let out in the end of current year, and the first
Systems on its basis should appear in 2002
It is expected that this processor (cpu) debuts from the clock
Frequency in 1 GHz or above. Under the available information,
All 64-digit processors (cpu) Intel will contain in
The name word Itanium, and McKinley, Madison
Other names and remain code names.
Thus, most likely, officially
Will be announced Itanium II, Itanium III and etc.
Only in three years after signing
Agreements, in November, 1997 Intel and Hewlett-Packard
Have presented architecture of the future processor (cpu) and plans
Workings out of whole family IA-64 (Intel Architecture). Not
Relying only on own resources, in May, 1999
Intel declared creation of investment fund,
Received name Intel 64 Fund with the 250 million capital
Dollars These means should be directed on
Investment support of the companies which are engaged
Working out of Internet appendices and ON level
The enterprises. In fund creation, besides Intel and Hewlett -
Packard, have taken part 16 companies and the organizations.
Among them not only computer firms — Compaq,
Dell, SGI, but also Reuters, Ford Motor Company, General
Electric, Bank of America
Mln. dollars it is invested more than in 40 companies,
Working in sphere of an infrastructure the Internet,
Electronic trade, manufacture and the finance on
The vertical markets.
Then, in 1997, Intel and Hewlett-Packard
Have presented architecture and a set of commands IA-64. In August
1999 for the first time there were pre-production models
processor (cpu), and in the autumn Intel has presented Itanium as
The commercial name the first 64
Digit processor (cpu), until then carrying the working
Name Merced
processors (cpu) Itanium "(IPF, Itanium Processor Family) and
"Architecture Itanium" (Itanium Architecture). In a year, in
October, 2000 there were pilot samples of systems on
To basis Itanium. Approximately at the same time has passed the second
Industrial testing of programs and the equipment
On platform Itanium. A priority problem of it
Actions there was a rigid testing of a platform
Before pilot release, and in the program
Testings work check entered into networks and
Maintenance of telecommunications. In territory Caesar's
Palace the area of 34 thousand sq. foots where passed
Testing, has been laid more than 3 miles of a cable,
More than hundred 20-ampernyh power lines, are established
Storehouses given in total capacity more than 2 Tbyte.
Other actions were actively spent also, including
Wide circulation of the key technical
The information and working out means, and also delivery
More than 6000 prototypes of servers, both in one - and in
многоprocessor (cpu) ache configurations. Besides, Intel
Has opened in the different countries of the world more than 30 centers
Applications programming, where engineers Intel and
Developers of program and hardware maintenance
In common worked over optimization of the applied
Programs under systems on the basis of Itanium.
Features of architecture
According to representatives Intel, architecture
processor (cpu) Itanium is the most considerable
Working out since presentation of 386th processor (cpu)
In 1985 the First samples 64-digit processor (cpu)
Intel represent a cartridge in the size about
10 х 6 sm which includes a cache-memory of the third
Level in capacity of 2 or 4 Mb and a radiator. A cartridge
It is mounted in a socket of type Slot and has 418 conclusions.
Processor (cpu) has three-level hierarchy
Scratch-pad memory. If a cache-memory of the first and
The second levels it is integrated on a crystal
processor (cpu), microcircuits of cache-memory of the third level
Are located on the payment of a cartridge. On realization
processor (cpu) with observance of design norms 0,18 microns
It was required about 320 million transistors, from which
Only 25 million was necessary on realization of the kernel, and
The others — on a cache-memory. The biggest module
processor (cpu) is a block of calculations with swimming
Comma, it occupies about 10 % of the area of a crystal.
Productivity Itanium makes to 6,4 billion
Operations from a floating comma in a second. Thanking
To architecture EPIC and 15 actuation mechanisms
processor (cpu) can carry out to 20 operations
Simultaneously. Thus it can is direct
To address to 16 Tbyte of memory at the throughput
Abilities to 2,1 Gbytes/with. In processor (cpu) е it is realized
Support of all expansions Intel (technologies MMX, SIMD
And symmetric мультиprocessor (cpu) ache processings), for
Exception SSE2.
One of the most interesting details in the plan
Placings of knots processor (cpu) is a system
Synchronization of work of knots. Simultaneous transfer
Clock impulses at the big area processor (cpu)
Represents a challenge for developers,
As delays in distribution of impulses
The clock generator can cause
рассинхронизацию knots. For this purpose on all area
Distributions of clock impulses.
Architecture Itanium includes such unique
Means of increase of reliability, as system
Expanded self-checking EMCA (Enhanced Machine
Check Architecture), providing detection,
Correction and recording of errors, and also
Support of processing of code ECC (Error Correcting Code) and
Parity control.
For two- and четырехprocessor (cpu) ных systems Intel
Has let out a special set of microcircuits Intel 460GX,
Which can join in cascade, increasing number
Simultaneously used processors (cpu). As
The configuration of such systems initially provides
Volumes of operative memory in some gigabyte, in
Systems Itanium are applied rather inexpensive
Microcircuits of memory of type SDRAM. Thus for
Productivity increases, by words
Representatives Intel, such methods, as are used
буферирование, alternation and memory division on
Some banks. A set of microcircuits really
Supports work from 64 Gbytes of memory at
The maximum throughput of 4,2 Gbytes/with, though
64-digit addressing of memory theoretically allows
To address to much bigger quantity of addresses.
Processors (cpu) Itanium will work on the clock
To frequency of 800 or 733 MHz, and their cost in dependence
From cache-memory volume will make from 1177 to 4227 dollars
Development modern lines
микро processors (cpu) are connected with performance большего
Numbers of commands for one step. Developers IA-64 believe,
What to achieve higher level
суперскалярности (распараллеливания) in processor (cpu) е
It is possible, only if to refuse the usual
Consecutive codes and to enter parallelism directly on
Level of system of commands. In this case a problem
распараллеливания lies down not on equipment
processor (cpu), and on the compiler. As it was already marked, in
To basis IA-64 technology EPIC, the main idea lies
Which — introduction of obvious parallelism.
Advantages of such approach are clear. IN
схемотехнических decisions processors (cpu) disappears
The difficult logic which is responsible for the extraordinary
Superscalar performance of commands, also it is possible to take away
It is more than place on a crystal under a cache-memory, a file
Registers and actuation mechanisms. However, with
Other party, there is a necessity
To develop difficult and it is effective
распараллеливающие compilers.
Undoubtedly that between technologies EPIC and VLIW
(Very Long Instruction Word) much in common. VLIW usually
Consider as the static superscalar
Architecture. Means that распараллеливание
Code occurs at a compilation stage, instead of dynamically
During execution. Differently, in a machine code
VLIW there is an obvious parallelism. In turn,
To the basic features EPIC carry:
• a considerable quantity of registers,
• scalability of architecture to the big
Quantities of the executive functional
Devices,
• parallelism in a machine code,
• a prediction of branchings (предикацию),
• speculative performance (loading on
To the assumption).
The basic feature EPIC the same, as at VLIW, —
распараллеливанием a stream of commands is engaged
The compiler, instead of processor (cpu). Advantages given
The approach consist that the architecture becomes simpler
processor (cpu), and it doesn't waste time on the stream analysis
Commands. Besides, unlike processor (cpu),
The compiler is capable to carry out the analysis on all
To the program, instead of on rather small it
To site. As almost any program should
To be started repeatedly, it is more favourable распараллелить than it
Once (at compilation), instead of each time, when it
It is executed on processor (cpu) е.
In architecture Itanium is on 128 64
Digit integer registers of general purpose
And 80-digit registers of material arithmetics, and
Also 64 одноpазpядных пpедикатных pегистpа. All of them
Are accessible to programming; besides, is available
Set of the inaccessible internal office
The registers used processor (cpu). 64
The one-digit register are used for the organization
Logicians of a prediction of branching and performance of commands in
The order which is distinct from the consecutive.
For achievement of obvious parallelism in a format
Commands IA-64 additional categories of a mask are entered,
Which obviously specify in dependences between
Commands. Till now a problem of definition of the such
Dependences completely lay down on equipment
processor (cpu). Here the concept of groups of commands is entered.
All of them are independent, and it is necessary to give out them on
Performance in different actuation mechanisms.
Mask categories specify in dependences not only
In several commands, but also between groups of commands.
On three commands IA-64 unite in so-called
The sheaf having capacity of 128 categories. A sheaf
Contains three commands and a template in which it is specified,
What dependences between commands (for example are,
Whether it is possible to start with the first command in parallel
The second or it should be executed only after
The first and etc.). The conclusion
In summary we will notice that in the modern
processor (cpu) х techniques are actively used
Predictions of branchings and speculative performance.
Today a lot of time leaves on
Calculation of branches of the program, which subsequently
Aren't used — and it is a problem which solves
Itanium.
At presence in the program of conditional branching
Commands from different branches are marked with the different
Predicate registers (commands have for this purpose
Predicate fields); further they are carried out in common,
But their results don't register, while values
Predicate registers aren't defined. At calculation
Branching conditions the predicate register,
Corresponding to a correct branch, it is established in
1, and another — in 0, and before record of results
processor (cpu) checks a predicate field, writes down
Results only those commands, a predicate field
Which are contained by the predicate category established in
Unit.
Architecture Itanium predicts and executes on
To the assumption. This mechanism is one more
Feature of the given technology also should lower
Idle times processor (cpu), connected with expectation
Performance of commands of loading from rather slow
The basic memory. The compiler moves commands
Loadings of the data from memory so that they were executed
As soon as possible. Hence, when the data from
Memories will be necessary for any command, processor (cpu) not
Will stand idle.
As loading commands in this case are called
The instructions moved thus on
To the assumption; they are marked in a special way.
Before a command using loaded on
To the assumption the data, the compiler will insert a command
Assumption checks. At occurrence
Exclusive situation during loading, processor (cpu)
Will generate an exception only when will meet
Command of check of the assumption.
For example, the loading command is taken out from
Branchings, and a branch from which it is taken out, not
It is started. In this case the arisen exclusive
The situation is ignored.
It is important to notice that fact that with exit Itanium
Comparison processors (cpu) on frequency practically loses
Sense. It is necessary to apply new techniques,
Considering not only the quantity is real
The instructions executed for one step, but also quality
The analysis the compiler of the executed program,
As resultant productivity will be
Strongly to depend on it (processor (cpu) after all can
To work with huge speed, calculating the unnecessary
Program branches).
Processor (cpu) Itanium it is completely compatible with
Modern 32-bit appendices, but вряд
Whether these programs will work on 64-digit
It is necessary to get used and to slower rates
Works. In alternative that new,
Customized applications will leave all behind.
For example, already at a pilot production stage
Has shown high speed
Algorithms of protection of the information, intensively
Using computing capacities.
Corporation AMD too has published the plans
Creations of 64-digit crystals. She has added 32
The category to already available 32, and registers have extended
To 64 categories, there were commands of manipulation with 64
The digit data, and the address tire has increased to
64 categories. The architecture x86-64 as a result was born.
Originally similar processor (cpu) has been named
Sledgehammer. Commands of a new crystal differ
From commands processors (cpu) x86 only presence of a prefix,
Specifying in their word length.
Here there are eight 64-digit registers
For operations of material arithmetics. And it in
To increase to sixteen registers of general purpose.
The eight first registers Sledgehammer
Are designated by the names reflecting them is
Origin: RAX, RBX, RCX, RDX, RSP, RBP, RSI,
RDI.
Eight younger categories RAX actually
Are equivalent to register A to the accumulator processor (cpu)
i8080 And to register AL
Are equivalent to register AH i8086. If to unite
These two fields register AX i8086 will turn out.
Bit field 0 – 31 — a full equivalent of the register
EAX in 32-bit 80 x 86.
And here architecture new processor (cpu) supplement
Sixteen 128-digit registers for storage
Operands of SIMD-instructions.
So, corporation AMD had been provided the full
Hardware support of performance of instructions x86-32 on
Kernel level. Unlike processor (cpu) Itanium, here
High-grade realization 8, 16 should be provided
And 32-bit appendices without loss
Productivity, i.e. on one processor (cpu) е can
Simultaneously and independently to work 16 and 32
Digit appendices. The given circumstance should
To make transition of users to a new platform
Painless, after all processors (cpu) can work in
Two режимах:.
• in technology Long the crystal will work as
x86-64;
• in technology Legacy Mode the crystal will be
To work as x86-processor (cpu), compatible with 16 and
32-bit appendices and supporting
Expansion SSE. In the near future it is planned to let out two
Models 64-digit micro processor (cpu): actually
Sledgehammer and younger model — Clawhammer.
The main differences consist mainly in size
Caches-memories of the second level:
• Clawhammer it is positioned as processor (cpu) for
Workstations also will support
двухprocessor (cpu) systems. And the size
Will make it adequately cheap;
• Sledgehammer as it is planned, will be
To support to eight processors (cpu).
Both processor (cpu) will contain the integrated
The controler of memory compatible to technology
HyperTransport. The given fact will allow directly
To work with system memory, passing the system tire and
Set of microcircuits.
For possibility of the reference to same
To memory segment in multiprocessor (cpu) systems will be
To be used architecture NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory
Access).
To everyone processor (cpu) at the separate will be taken away
The memory segment, but will be if necessary accessible and
Segment of memory of another processor (cpu). AMD
Develops two sets of microcircuits with support
HyperTransport. The first chipset Golem is intended for
Servers also it is equipped by bridge HyperTransport-PCI-X, and
The second — Lokar for workstations, has built in
Interface AGP support 8X and the bridge HyperTransport -
AGP.
In summary we will notice that new processors (cpu)
0,13 microns will be made taking into account design norms
And technologies SOI (Silicon On Insulator — "silicon on
Insulator ").
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